“For immortal power are closely tied or far away, hiddenly, all things, so that to make tremble you cannot a fjo without disturbing a star”
Francis Thompson (1859-1907)
INTRODUCTION
Today, many scientists believe that there may be a key to understanding the mathematical secret that lies at the heart of the universe, the so-called “theory of all”; the dream of describing the whole universe in an equation. Not new dream: Einstein spent the second part of his life in the unsuccessful and solitary research of this theory entirely.
In Greece, in the 6th century BCE, some thinkers were trying to discover the unique “principle” based on the infinite diversity of things. For Talete it was water; for Anassimene, the air; for Heraclitus, the fire; for Anassimandro, the unlimited. For Plato the theory can be summed up in the phrase “all is triangle”. Even in Middle Ages, he tried to encode and order everything he knew about heaven and earth. The great systems such as the “Summa” of Thomas Aquinas or Dante’s “Divina Commedia” tried to synthesize all the knowledge of the time.
But it is the story of the physical theories that suggests a gradual development towards unification. The first great synthesis is due to Newton, which showed that the motion of bullets on earth and the orbits of the planets could be explained by the same simple law. Similarly, Maxwell proposed a unified theory of electricity and magnetism. In the 20th century, Newton's theory was expelled from Einstein's general relativity theory, while Maxwell's theory was expanded to create a quantum field theory, called quantum electrodynamics. The weak force has recently been associated with electromagnetism. The strong force is also described by a quantum theory of the fields and can be considered all three forces (strong, weak and electromagnetic) as manifestations of one principle.
In recent decades, considerable progress has been made in identifying fundamental particles and in the knowledge of their reciprocal interactions. There are still many problems: two of the most important are gravitation. The first is that we do not know how gravitation is linked to other fundamental forces. The second is that there is no acceptable theory of gravitation according to the principles of quantum mechanics.
Among the fundamental forces of nature the gravitation was the first to be discovered and the first for which a precise theory of philosophy was found, the theory published by Newton in his Principle in 1687. Newton formulated the simple law that gravitational force acts universally between any pair of particles with an intensity directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of their distance. In this way he was able to calculate both the motion of terrestrial bullets, which resulted in agreement with Galileo's observations, and the orbits of the planets, in accordance with the empirical laws formulated by Kepler. The discovery of a law of force capable of correctly describing both the earthly motions and those of the celestial bodies offered a remarkable synthesis. Unification of the same kind was achieved in the treatment of electromagnetism. In the 19th century Maxwell demonstrated that static electricity produced when we comb our hair, the magnetic force acting on the needle of a compass and the light emitted by a candle or sun were phenomena related to a group of differential equations, which are known today by the name of Maxwell's equations of the electromagnetic field. Towards the end of the 19th century it was the current opinion that all complex manifestations of gravitation and electromagnetism could be described through the laws of Newton and Maxwell. But this way of seeing things was put in crisis by a series of experimental results obtained in the decades on horseback between the two centuries: for example, that the speed of light, unlike the speed of all other waves, does not depend on the motion of the observer; or the difficult interpretation of the discrete spectral lines of the atoms. These discrepancies were resolved with the development of two theories destined to become milestones of modern physics: the theory of restricted relativity and quantum mechanics. In order to reach this result they had to abandon the concepts of absolute time and determinism in the motion of particles. In narrow relativity time and space were related, while in quantum mechanics it was shown that particles and waves are equivalent. Thus it was possible to understand why the speed of light is the same for all observers and why spectral rows of atoms have discreet fixed frequencies. In the Newtonian theory of gravitation time and space are not closely related as in restricted relativity and therefore restricted relativity required a revision of gravitation theory. Such a theory was proposed by Einstein in 1916 and was called the theory of general relativity.
At the beginning of the twentieth century two new fundamental forces of nature were discovered: weak interaction, responsible for beta decay of radioactive elements, and strong force, which holds together protons and neutrons in atomic nuclei. These forces were not previously discovered because they act only in the short range of subatomic distances, while gravitation and electromagnetism are long-range forces of action, which can be observed at a macroscopic level. The four forces present an amazing variety of properties that we will have to see later.
THE FREE SUMMARY
(Showing that phenomena in appearance very different as the free fall of a body and the movement of the Moon are only different aspects of a single principle-gravity- Newton gives birth to the hope of a complete explanation of the Universe).
For the Greeks of the 4th century BCE the sky appears a perfectly regulated and unchanging world. On the contrary, the world of men is the scene of discord, corruption, disturbances. In this cosmology, the universe is spherical, finished and formed by a system of spheres, with man in the center, which serve as a support for planetary movements around a real land. The cosmos is divided into two parts: the sublude region and the overlude. In the heavens the movement is circular, in subluding the movement is straight; in the world below, there are four elements: water, fire, earth and air. Earth is still in the middle of the cosmos. This cosmology dominated until 1543 when Copernicus refused the geocentric and geostatic system of Ptolemy and with the statement that it is the Earth that revolves around the Sun laid the foundations for a concept of movement applicable to the whole universe. At the beginning of the 17th century Kepler made a process of unification inverse; for him the movements of the stars are those of physical bodies subjected to an acceleration that describe ellipses, that is, of the deformed circles. For Kepler the imperfect movements of the planets rejoin with a corrupt earthly world. For for Aristotle the celestial bodies were constituted by an unalterable matter (the ether), the extension of the heavenly movement to earth and earthly physics to heaven presupposes an identical matter, with the same physical laws. This means the abolition of a radical separation between the ether and the four elements. Galilei demonstrated, with geometric observations and reasoning, that the Moon is not a perfect sphere and the Sun has stains, thus disqualifying aristotelian duality in favor of a homogeneous cosmos. But it is with the law on the fall of the bodies (1632) that Galilei states that nature is written in mathematical language and that this language is both of terrestrial physics and of celestial dynamics; geometry becomes the inevitable instrument of knowledge of all phenomena. But it is Newton that with his theory of gravitation, published in 1687, realizes the synthesis of the celestial and earthly dynamics explaining and predicting the paths of the planets. All the bodies of the universe are subject to the same physical law: gravity; this force depends on the amount of matter put into play.
In addition to the new concept of mass, space is conceived as absolutely empty, homogeneous and isotropic. Newton was able to calculate with great precision the motions of planets and satellites thanks to the analytical methods developed by Lagrange and Laplace mathematicians.
At the beginning of the 20th century, Einstein observed, like Galilei, that the acceleration suffered by a body subjected to gravitational attraction does not depend on its mass. This leads him to formulate the principle of equivalence according to which “in a limited region of space, to the force of inertia linked to any accelerated movement, a certain gravitational field, equivalent to this force and that creates the same acceleration”. Einstein understood that the laws of the movement of the bodies are the same for two observers, one accelerated compared to the other, from which his principle of general relativity formulated in 1905, according to which all physical law is expressed independently of the reference system.
Modern cosmology leans on the principle of homogeneity of the universe (or cosmological principle), formulated by Milne. In fact, the principle of homogeneity plays a role similar to that of the sphere in Greek cosmology; to say that the universe is homogeneous, means that none of its parts is exceptional. The great scientific achievements and the revolutions related to them were accomplished thanks to the establishment of such homogeneity within different aspects of reality. On this point the unification of celestial and terrestrial movements, triggered by Copernicus, Kepler and Galileans, formulated by Newton and perfected by Einstein, was decisive because it made possible the rise of a physics and scientific cosmology.
THE ELECTRICAL SINTENS
(The unification of electrical, magnetic and luminous phenomena at the end of the 19th century led to the triumph of classical mechanics. To the point that you can consider physics as a practically accomplished set).
After more than a century, the theory developed by J.C. Maxwell allows to describe both electrical and magnetic phenomena, and the propagation of electromagnetic waves, including visible light, radio transmissions or X-rays. The unification that this theory carries out between the domains of physics so different and its apparent simplicity represents the crowning of classical physics. From the 17th century scientists underline the resemblances between magnetic phenomena and electrical phenomena. Coulomb, in 1780, shows that the force between two poles of a magnet or between two small electrized balls follows the same law. The analogy between the formula of Coulomb () and that of the gravitation of Newton () is perfect.
In 1820 Oersted exhibition that the passage of the electric current in a conductor turns the needle of a compass nearby. Experience easy to repeat but requiring a long and difficult job to interpret it correctly. Faraday, for example, studied the relationship between different types of phenomena: chemical reactions and electricity, electricity and heat, heat and light, etc. He discovered that the magnetism of a powerful magnet could act on a radius of light that crosses a piece of glass and sought in vain, at the end of his life, a relationship between gravity and light. He also discovered a reciprocal phenomenon of Oersted's experience: the creation of "indotte" currents in a coil for the movement of a magnet. Faraday states that the propagation of electrical and magnetic effects, unlike what Coulomb and Ampere thought, occurs through the propagation of long vibrations of the lines that connect the bodies in interaction: “The diffusion of magnetic forces can be compared from a magnetic pole to vibrations on the surface of the water, or to those of the air in the propagation of the sound; I think that a wave theory will apply one day to these phenomena as it applies to sound and, with great probability, to light.” It is from this idea that Maxwell establishes the laws of propagation in the space of electrical and magnetic effects. Starting from a description of Faraday’s strength lines, Maxwell rewrites Coulomb’s laws and Ampere’s law on the magnetic effects of a current and Faraday’s law on induction. He came to a system of differential equations that expresses propagation in space. He also introduced new elements. Recognizing the hypothesis of a universal means, the “ether”, Maxwell added in one of his equations a term that makes the same symmetries for electricity and magnetism. These equations have an unexpected consequence. They present solutions corresponding to “transverse” waves: the magnetic field and the electric field swing perpendicularly to the direction of propagation of waves. Calculating the velocity of propagation of these waves, Maxwell finds a velocity equal to that of light, concluding that light (and still not known that it consists of transversal waves) propagates in the same ether that transmits electrical and magnetic phenomena and can therefore be assimilated to an electromagnetic phenomenon.
Hertz, in 1888, demonstrates the existence of electromagnetic waves, created in the space of an electric circuit and Guglielmo Marconi, depositing in 1897 a patent for a wireless communication system (TSF) discovers a new continent: in 1901 the TSF crosses the Atlantic Ocean.
In that time Einstein wonders why Maxwell's equations lead to different physical interpretations when the observer, i.e. the reference system, is moving in relation to the charges, currents or magnets. It is this question that leads him to formulate in 1905 the theory of restricted relativity, in his famous article entitled “On the electrodynamics of moving bodies”. Einstein's principle of relativity concludes that the laws of physics must express themselves in the same way in all references. Because the equations of electromagnetic waves occur this principle, a new type of change of coordinates is necessary: it is the “transformation of Lorenz”, which realizes the invariance of the speed of light. It is found that, contrary to the equations of Newtonnian dynamics, the equations established by Maxwell are not modified by the theory of relativity; this has comforted Einstein on the validity of this theory that eliminates the ether as material support of electromagnetic waves. Thus, at the beginning of the century, a completely different vision of electromagnetic irradiation was born. In 1910 Max Planck demonstrates that energy exchanges for thermal radiation do not happen continuously but for “packs” or “quanti” of energy. In his study of the photoelectric effect, in 1905, Einstein showed that it should be considered electromagnetic waves as corpuscles collections called photons. These photons are the energy packages of Planck.
The development of modern physics begins to rely on the new concept of “quantification” of interactions to give rise, in the 1920s, to the theory of quantum electrodynamics, whose success opens the perspective of new unifications in particle physics.
THE ELECTRICAL SINTENS
(The unification of electromagnetic interaction and weak nuclear interaction in the 1960s opens the way to the program of a “Theory of All”. This unified force called electrodebole received experimental confirmations.
The discovery of radioactivity ß led Enrico Fermi to hypothesize, in the early 1930s, the existence of a new force, the weak interaction. Later the success of quantum electrodynamics (QED), developed in 1949 by Feynmann, Schwinger and Tomonaga to describe the interactions between electrons and photons, incites the physicists to make this QED a model to represent the other fundamental interactions. Thanks to this, it was hypothesized that weak and electromagnetic forces are two different aspects of one “electrodebole” interaction. In the classical description of electromagnetic phenomena, the interactions between electrons are described with the coupling of electron currents with the magnetic field. In QED, these interactions are interpreted as exchanges of photons, messenger particles of electromagnetic interaction. QED is a prototype of a gauge theory. In such a theory there is a group of mathematical transformations (of the “gauge” symmetries) for which the dynamic of the particles is invariant. This gauge symmetry is called local when these transformations depend on the instant and position in space. The QED has a local gauge symmetry U(1), i.e. it is invariant for the transformations that change the “phase” parameter of the wave function. But this invariance requires the introduction of new particles, gauge bosons, which are nothing but photons:,,, mass nothing.
How to build a theory, with a local gauge symmetry valid for high energies and which attributes a mass to gauge bosons and leptons, but without neutral current of strangeness nothing? The solution to this problem was inspired by a mechanism that sometimes manifests itself in condensate matter systems, called “spontaneous rotation” of symmetry. Weinberg in 1967 assumed the existence of a new particle, the Higgs boson, which leads to leptons and bosons with mass. At the same time Gellmann and Zweig had developed a theory in which all aroni (neutrons, protons, hyperionis, kaoni, etc.) are made up of quarks of three possible flavors: up (u), down (d) and strange (s). The quarks carry an electric charge which is a fraction of that of the proton: if it is agreed that the latter carries a charge +1, the quark u carries a charge +2/3, and the quarks d and s each have a charge –1/3. A proton contains two quarks u and one d and a neutron one quark u and two d; the loaded meson, of charge +1, contains u and where designates the particle of the quark d.
In 1970 Glashow, Iliopoulos and Maiani proposed the existence of a quark with the “charme”, charging +2/3. This hypothesis, called “mechanism GIM”, allows to eliminate the neutral weak currents of strangeness not nothing but brings with it the existence of new aroni, then unknown, constituted by quarks c and/or its particle.
In 1973 at CERN they discovered some neutral weak currents of nothing strangeness and, in 1974 at the SLAC, the J/Adrone formed by quarks c e. The construction of a proton-antiproton collider at Cern, on a project by Carlo RUBBIA, was rewarded in 1983 by the discovery that the boson masses were in conformity with the forecasts. The discovery of new leptons at Slac and Fermilab in Chicago suggested the existence of two other quarks, the bottom quark or beauty (b), of electric charge –1/3 and the top quark (t) of charge +2/3, discovered in 1995 at Fermilab.
Today it agreed that the electrodebole theory was successfully tested. However, the experimental discovery of the Higgs boson, where the mass is estimated at about 150 GeV/, remains essential to apply theory. The scientific community is convinced that sooner or later, it will come to observe Higgs bosons, perhaps thanks to the LHC ( Large Hadron Collider) supercollider of Cern that will be operating in 2005.
This theory cannot therefore be considered as a true unification of weak and electromagnetic interactions. Although inextricably combined, these two interactions have two independent coupling constants (which characterize their specific intensity): the electric charge “e” for electromagnetic interaction, and the angle w for weak interaction.
A unified theory will have to involve only one specific magnitude. As if it was not enough, the theory currently presupposes more than twenty other greatnesses, for the most part concerning the masses, independent from “e” and “w”. The next challenge will therefore be to understand what defines the values of these masses.
THE ELECTRICAL SINTENS
(The unification of strong nuclear interaction and electrodebole interaction in an electronuclear force has experienced a mitigated success. No experiment has validated this theory of great unification but it proposes a coherent description of all quantum interactions).
Since the discovery, in the 1930s, of the strong interaction that binds protons and neutrons within the atom, the physicists tried to harmonize its description with that of electromagnetic interaction. It was therefore necessary to achieve a satisfactory understanding of this nuclear link. The creation, at the end of the 1960s, of powerful accelerators allowed to probe even the inside of the nucleons (protons and neutrons). For classical physics, electromagnetic phenomena are due to the action of a field created by electrically charged particles and affecting the movement of other charges. In the modern description of these phenomena (the quantum electrodynamics), this action corresponds to the emission, propagation and absorption of photons. The physicist Yukawa proposed in 1937 that the strong interaction, without which the protons, carriers of positive electric charges, would be rejected and could not therefore cohabit in the atomic nucleus, also described by the emission, propagation and absorption of particles: the mesons. Ten years later, we can observe the fleeting particles that correspond to the Yukawa prediction. These mesons have a mass between electron and proton. They can be positive, negative or neutral and are produced in large quantities in very energetic nuclear reactions. For example, the collision of a cosmic ray with a proton frequently forms different mesons. The commissioning of a large electron linear accelerator in Stanford, California in 1967 allowed the heart of matter to be more accurately examined. The physicists understood that each quark brought a new type of charge called “color” that could take three fundamental values: red, green or blue (an antiquark brings a complementary color: cyan, magenta or yellow respectively). This is why the theory of strong interaction took the name of quantum chromodynamics. Nothing seems to distinguish a red quark from a green quark. Theorists were led to believe that there was a hidden symmetry, by virtue of which nature is indifferent to that a quark is red, green or blue, established that the interaction between the quarks is transmitted by gluons, bearers themselves of a color and an anticolore. This symmetry gives quantum chromodynamics the status of gauge theory, as for electrodebole theory. The existence of gluons was confirmed a few years later thanks to the Desy research centre in Hamburg.
Stanford’s experience has not only revealed the existence of quarks; but it also appeared that the more the collision is energy (i.e. the distance between the particles is weak) the less the strong interaction seems intense. The situation is reversed in the case of electromagnetic interactions. Lived very close, the quarks of a nucleon look free. On the other hand, if they move away, the strength that binds them increases and cannot exit from the nucleon. Quarks and gluons are confined within the nucleons and mesons. What binds the nucleons in the nucleus among them are the stems of gluons, quarks and antiquarks, fugues that resemble mesons. Thus, strong interaction can be understood as an exchange of gluons between colored particles. And since the unified electrodebole interaction is also expressed as exchanges of bosons (W, and photons), one can think that a new stage towards a unified understanding of all forces has been overcome. A theoretical physicist sometimes discovers an important index where the common man does not see that a banal event. Thus, the fact that the electric charge of the proton is opposed to that of the electron with the accuracy of one in thousand billions has phenomenal. Another index of unity comes from the relationship between the values of the charges and their reciprocal distances: when the energy increases (or when the distance decreases), the intensity of the electric charge grows and that of the color decreases. It is estimated that they could gather to an energy of the order of the GeV.
The use of symmetry theory leads to the formation of particle groups subject to the same interaction, or multiple. This is what mathematicians call representations of groups with little attractive names: SU(3), SO(10), SU(8), E(7)...So the red, green and blue quarks are the members of the same triplet and the gluons are like the tools that allow to pass from one to another. Adding an electron to a quarks terna envisions a universe where a great harmony between protons and electrons reigns, being the sum of their charges exactly nothing. It is a world that describes the different theories of great unification or electronuclear unification, after that proposed in 1973 by the physicists Glashow and Georgi. A world of extreme energy density (as the universe was supposed to be some fractions of a second after the big bang) where there is no gravitation, but only one fundamental force that possesses all the characteristics of electromagnetism and weak and strong interactions, and that acts on all known particles. The messengers of the forces (gluons, photons and bosons W and ) would then be grouped in multiples to which new objects would be added, leptoquarks. Since the first developments of the theory of great unification (GUT), it was noticed that it predicted an impressive event: the proton has a limited lifespan. But its probability of disintegration during a year of observation is estimated at, that is, it has no unpleasant consequence for the near future of our universe. So far, despite the many researches in place around the world, we have not detected the death of some proton. The simplest models of electronuclear unification have not passed the exams. However, they have the merit of offering an elegant and consistent representation of quantum interactions, based on mathematical symmetries. Theoreticians have, on the other hand, begun to study the possible effects of a new symmetry (supersymmetry) between particles such as a gluon and a quark, works that were inserted in the search for an even more general theory voted to incorporate gravitational interaction.
THE SUMMARY
(The last stage of the theory program entirely: the unification of gravitation and electronuclear force. If the theories of the ropes represent a promising track, nothing still allows to assert that they will achieve the result of this quest for unity).
The dream of a theory was born with Einstein; he dedicated to the unification of gravitational and electromagnetic interaction the last 35 years of his life. Einstein highlighted the relativity of the notions of time and space, and the fact that the transformations that bind them are the same that bind electricity and magnetism. He also demonstrated that space-time is curved by the masses it contains and that the waves of deformation of this space, gravitational waves, must be able to propagate, as electromagnetic waves do. At the same time the revolution of quantum mechanics took place. This new theory allowed us to achieve a synthesis of wave and corpuscular behaviours observed in different experiences: a particle of matter, such as electron, can behave like a wave while the opposite light can manifest itself in a corpuscular aspect (in the form of photons). Later the quantum theory of the fields will become a powerful tool to understand the nature of weak, electromagnetic and strong interactions. These three fundamental interactions are now very well described by the standard model according to which they are of exchange of mediating particles (photons, bosons, and gluons). This model has allowed to combine electromagnetic and weak interactions in an electrodebole interaction, and to sketch out the great unification of electromagnetic, weak and strong interactions. These successes prompted the physicists to seek, on the basis of a standard model, a unified theory of all fundamental interactions, often called, more or less ironically, “theory of all”.
This theory should describe the properties of a superforce where gravitational, weak, electromagnetic and strong interactions would constitute four facets. The intensity of gravitation is extremely weak compared to those of other interactions. On the other hand, at much higher energies, such as those at stake in the early moments of the universe, this intensity had to be very high. It is estimated that the characteristic intensity of the four fundamental interactions must unite to an energy near GeV, which corresponds to distances of the order of cm.
The consideration of these energies requires a quantum theory of gravitation, i.e. a description of gravitational interaction in terms of exchange of a mass particle nothing, the graviton. Unfortunately we do not know how to assess the effects of the exchanges of several gravitons, because they bring us, in calculations, to infinite quantities. The most promising directions appeal to supersymmetry, structure inherently that allows to explain and unite the two great theoretical paintings that are general relativity and quantum mechanics.
The transformations of supersymmetry act in a greater “superspace” than ordinary space-time, their combinations produce transformations in the latter. Since the principle of general relativity says that the laws of physics must express themselves invariant manner in relation to the changes of coordinates in space-time, the invariance from supersymmetry is likely to appear as more fundamental than that required by the principle of relativity. For another reason, such a symmetry transforms the wave function of a particle into that of another particle by changing the value of the kinetic moment of rotation 1⁄2 (greatness called spin and measured by a full-price admission or half full-price admission).
Can the supersymmetry be used to associate the bosons of spin 1 (,photons and gluons), interaction vectors, 1⁄2 spin stoppers (leptons and quarks), constituting matter?
Unfortunately, it seems impossible to achieve such associations. However, this does not prevent us from imagining that a supersimmetric companion may exist for each known particle. For example, the photon will be associated with a fotino, a quark to a squark, a gluon to a glutino, etc., all these objects interact in the framework of a supersymmetric standard model. The search for these hypothetical “particles s”, begun at the end of the 1970s, is today one of the major concerns of particle physics.
The physicists count a lot on the LHC (Large Hadron Collider), a proton/proton accumulation ring of Cern that will happen in a few years at the LEP (Large Electron-Positron Collider) and that will be able to explore the energy scale of Teraelecnvolt (1,000 GeV).
To overcome the problem of how to incorporate gravitational interaction within the framework of quantum physics, perhaps it will be necessary to abandon the concept of dot particles in favor of objects such as ropes or membranes that evolve in a space-time consisting of more than four dimensions. The different particles would correspond to different vibration states of the ropes. Today there are five families of string theories. What to choose, and according to what criteria? We still do not know!!! The dimensions of the strings (probably close to the length of Planck: cm, or sometimes the size of a proton), being out of the reach of the current colliders (turn their resolution), prevent us from testing the predictions of the theories of the strings. Probably the law of gravitational force described by the theory of general relativity will be changed; Einstein’s principle of equivalence may be slightly violated, according to which the gravitational acceleration of a body does not depend on its nature. It is precisely this principle that the STEP project (Satellite Test of the Equivalence Principle) has the ambition to test, making in a more precise way the experience of the fall of the bodies carried out by Galilei in 1632.
It is very difficult to know whether the theories of strings or hypothetical M theory, which describes the interactions of small strings and membranes, will allow to describe all particles with the masses and interactions as we know them today. Although some experiments bind us to these models, the search for a unified theory of all fundamental interactions and, in this sense, ultimately seems far from being finished.
Hangers and insights are not available online (also because very “heavy” in terms of byte and, therefore, extremely slow to download), but can be consulted inside the Museum.
APPENDIX 1:
APPENDIX 2: THE SUPPORT OF THE WORLD
APPENDIX 3: THE UNIVERSE OF A QUARK
APPENDIX 4: THE CAVENDISH PENDOL
APPENDIX 5: THE GEOMETRIZZATION OF GRAVITY
APPENDIX
APPENDIX 7: MAXWELL EQUATIONS
APPENDIX 8
I'm sorry. W
APPENDIX 10: The DEBLE INTERATION
APPENDIX 11: VIOLATION OF PARITY
APPENDIX 12: HIGGS MECHANISM
APPENDIX 13: THE DISINTEGRATION OF THE PROTONE
APPENDIX 14: FORTE INTERATION
APPENDIX 15: L'INTENSITA' DELLA FORZA DI COLOUR
APPENDIX 16: THE UNIFICATION OF QUARKS AND ELECTRONS
APPENDIX 17: THE STEP PROJECT
APPENDIX 18: THE CONVERGENCE OF INTERNATIONS
19: THE SUPERSIMMETRIES
APPENDIX 20: SUPERCORDE
BIBLIOGRAPHY (English)
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